Doubly linked list --- Data structure Pgm

//doubly linked list
#include
#include
void create_list();
void insert_first();
void delete_first();
struct node* get_node();
void view();
void readnode(struct node *newnode);
struct node
{
int data;
struct node *prev; s
truct node *next;
}*head,*last;

struct node* get_node()
{
struct node *newnode;
int size=sizeof(struct node);
newnode=(struct node*)malloc(size);
return newnode;
}
void read_node(struct node *newnode)
{
printf("\n\nEnter the data:->");
scanf("%d",&newnode->data);
newnode->prev=NULL; newnode->next=NULL;
return;
}
void release_node(struct node *del)
{
free(del);
return;
}
void create_list()
{ struct node *newnode; char ch;
do
{
newnode=get_node();
read_node(newnode);
if (head==NULL)
{
head=newnode;
last=newnode;
}
else
{
last->next=newnode;
newnode->prev=last;
last=newnode;
}
printf("\n\nDo u want to continue(Y/N)?");
scanf("%s",&ch);
}
while((ch=='y')(ch=='Y'));
return;
}
void insert_first()
{
struct node *newnode;
newnode=get_node();
read_node(newnode);
if (head==NULL)
{
head=newnode;
last=newnode;
}
else
{
newnode->next=head;
head->prev=newnode;
head=newnode;
}
view();
return;
}
void delete_first()
{
struct node *del;
if (head==NULL)
printf("\n\nList is empty");
else
{
del=head;
head=head->next;
if(head!=NULL)
head->prev=NULL;
printf("The deleted data is %d",del->data);
release_node(del);
}
view();
return;
}
void modify()
{
int temp;
struct node *disp;
if (head==NULL)
printf("\n\nThe list is empty");
else
{
printf("\nEnter the data to be changed:-");
scanf("%d",&temp); printf("\n\n");
for(disp=head;disp!=NULL;disp=disp->next)
{
if(temp==disp->data)
{
printf("\nEnter the new data");
scanf("%d",&disp->data); printf("\ndata %d modified as %d",temp,disp->data);
}
}
}
getch();
return;
}
void view()
{
struct node *disp;
if (head==NULL)
printf("\n\nThe list is empty");
else
{
printf("\n\n");
for(disp=head;disp!=NULL;disp=disp->next)
printf("%d\t",disp->data);
}
getch();
return;
}
void main()
{
int c;
clrscr();
printf("Doubly Linked List\n\n1.Create list\n2.insert first\n3.delete first\n4.view list\n5.modify\n6.Exit\n");
do
{
printf("\n\nEnter ur choice(1-6):->");
scanf("%d",&c);
switch (c)
{
case 1: create_list(); break;
case 2: insert_first(); break;
case 3: delete_first(); break;
case 4: view(); break;
case 5: modify(); break;
default: exit(0);
}
}while(1);
}

____________*ALLTHEBEST*________________

With Regards,
5stararun.....

singly linked list -- Data structure Pgm

//singly linked list
#include
#include
void create();
void insert_first();
void delete_first();
void modify();
struct node* getnode();
void view();
void readnode(struct node *newnode);
struct node{ int data; struct node *link;};
struct node *head,*temp;
struct node* getnode()
{
struct node *newnode;
int size;
size=sizeof(struct node);
newnode=(struct node*)malloc(size);
getch(); return (newnode);
}
void readnode(struct node *newnode)
{
printf("\n\nenter the data:->");
scanf("%d",&newnode->data);
newnode->link=NULL; return;
}
void release_node(struct node *del)
{
free(del);
return;
}
void create()
{
struct node *newnode;
char ch;
do
{
newnode=getnode();
readnode(newnode);
if(head==NULL)
{
head=newnode;
temp=newnode;
}
else
{
temp->link=newnode;
temp=temp->link;
}
printf("\n\nDo u want to continue(Y/N):->");
scanf("%s",&ch);
}
while((ch=='y')(ch=='Y'));
return;
}
void insert_first()
{
struct node *newnode;
newnode=getnode();
readnode(newnode);
if(head==NULL)
head=newnode;
else
{
newnode->link=head;
head=newnode;
}
view();
return;
}
void delete_first()
{
struct node *del;
if(head==NULL)
printf("\n\nList is Empty");
else
{
del=head; head=head->link;
printf("\n\nThe deleted data is %d",del->data); release_node(del);
}
view();
return;
}
void view()
{
struct node *disp;
if (head==NULL)
printf("\n\nThe list is empty");
else
{
printf("\n\n");
for(disp=head;disp!=NULL;disp=disp->link)
printf("%d\t",disp->data); } getch();
return;
}
void modify()
{
int temp;
struct node *disp;
if (head==NULL)
printf("\n\nThe list is empty");
else
{
printf("\nEnter the data to be changed:-");
scanf("%d",&temp);
printf("\n\n");
for(disp=head;disp!=NULL;disp=disp->link)
{
if(temp==disp->data)
{ printf("\nEnter the new data");
scanf("%d",&disp->data);
printf("\ndata %d modified as %d",temp,disp->data);
}
}
}
getch();
return;
}
void main()
{
int c;
clrscr();
printf("1.Create list\n2.insert first\n3.delete first\n4.Modify data\n5.view list\n6.exit\n");
do
{
printf("\n\nEnter ur choice(1-6):->");
scanf("%d",&c); switch (c) { case 1: create(); break; case 2: insert_first(); break;
case 3: delete_first(); break; case 4: modify(); break; case 5: view(); break;
default: exit(0); }
}while(1);
}
_______________________*ALL THEBEST*_____________________________


With Regards,
5stararun.....

Queue using array -- Data structure Pgm

//Queue using array

#include
#include
#define MAX 5int q[MAX],rear=-1,front=0;
void Enqueue();
void Dequeue();
void Display();
void main()
{
int choice;
clrscr();
printf("\n\n1.Enqueue\n2.Dequeue\n3.Display\n4.Exit");
while(1)
{
printf("\n\nEnter ur choice:-->");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch (choice)
{
case 1: Enqueue(); break;
case 2: Dequeue(); break;
case 3: Display(); break;
case 4: exit(0);
}
}
}
void Enqueue()
{ int item;
if (rear==MAX)
printf("\n\nQueue is Full");
else { rear++; printf("\n\n enter the detail:->"); s
canf("%d",&item); q[rear]=item;
}
Display();
}
void Dequeue()
{
int item,i;
if (rearprintf("\n\nQueue is Empty");
else { item=q[front];
for(i=front;i rear--;
printf("\n\nthe deleted detail is %d",item);
Display();
}
}
void Display()
{
int i;
if (rearprintf("\n\nQueue is Empty");
else
{
printf("\n\n Queue elements are\n\n front:");
for(i=front;i<=rear;i++)
printf("%d<--",q[i]);
printf(":rear");
}
}

_______________________*ALL THEBEST*_____________________________


With Regards,
5stararun.....

Stack using array-- Data structure Pgm

//Stack using array
#include
#include
#define MAX 5void Push();
void Pop();
void Display();
int stack[MAX],topstk=-1;
void main()
{ int choice;
clrscr();
while(1)
{
printf("\n\n1.Push\n2.Pop\n3.Display\n4.Exit"); printf("\n\nEnter ur choice:->");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch (choice)
{
case 1: Push(); break;
case 2: Pop(); break;
case 3: Display(); break;
case 4: exit(0);
}
}
Display();
return;
}
void Push()
{
int item;
if (topstk==MAX)
printf("\n\nStack is Full");
else { topstk++; printf("\n\n enter the detail:->");
scanf("%d",&item);
stack[topstk]=item;
}
Display();
return;
}
void Pop()
{
int item;
if (topstk==-1)
printf("\nStack is Empty");
else { item=stack[topstk];
topstk--;
printf("\n\nthe deleted detail is %d",item);
}
Display();
return;
}
void Display()
{
int i;
if (topstk==-1)
printf("\nStack is Empty");
else { printf("\n Stack elements are:Front<--");
for(i=topstk;i>=0;i--)
printf("%d<--",stack[i]);
printf("Rear");
}
getch();
return;
}

8085 Mnemonics

Mnemonic OpSZAPC~sDescription Notes
---------+--+-----+--+--------------------------+-------------
ACI n CE***** 7Add with Carry Immediate A=A+n+CY
ADC r 8F***** 4Add with Carry A=A+r+CY(21X)
ADC M 8E***** 7Add with Carry to Memory A=A+[HL]+CY
ADD r 87***** 4Add A=A+r (20X)
ADD M 86***** 7Add to Memory A=A+[HL]
ADI n C6***** 7Add Immediate A=A+n
ANA r A7****0 4AND Accumulator A=A&r (24X)
ANA M A6****0 7AND Accumulator and MemoryA=A&[HL]
ANI n E6**0*0 7AND Immediate A=A&n
CALL a CD-----18Call unconditional -[SP]=PC,PC=a
CC a DC----- 9Call on Carry If CY=1(18~s)
CM a FC----- 9Call on Minus If S=1 (18~s)
CMA 2F----- 4Complement Accumulator A=~A
CMC 3F----* 4Complement Carry CY=~CY
CMP r BF***** 4Compare A-r (27X)
CMP M BF***** 7Compare with Memory A-[HL]
CNC a D4----- 9Call on No Carry If CY=0(18~s)
CNZ a C4----- 9Call on No Zero If Z=0 (18~s)
CP a F4----- 9Call on Plus If S=0 (18~s)
CPE a EC----- 9Call on Parity Even If P=1 (18~s)
CPI n FE***** 7Compare Immediate A-n
CPO a E4----- 9Call on Parity Odd If P=0 (18~s)
CZ a CC----- 9Call on Zero If Z=1 (18~s)
DAA 27***** 4Decimal Adjust AccumulatorA=BCD format
DAD B 09----*10Double Add BC to HL HL=HL+BC
DAD D 19----*10Double Add DE to HL HL=HL+DE
DAD H 29----*10Double Add HL to HL HL=HL+HL
DAD SP 39----*10Double Add SP to HL HL=HL+SP
DCR r 3D****- 4Decrement r=r-1 (0X5)
DCR M 35****-10Decrement Memory [HL]=[HL]-1
DCX B 0B----- 6Decrement BC BC=BC-1
DCX D 1B----- 6Decrement DE DE=DE-1
DCX H 2B----- 6Decrement HL HL=HL-1
DCX SP 3B----- 6Decrement Stack Pointer SP=SP-1
DI F3----- 4Disable Interrupts
EI FB----- 4Enable Interrupts
HLT 76----- 5Halt
IN p DB-----10Input A=[p]
INR r 3C****- 4Increment r=r+1 (0X4)
INR M 3C****-10Increment Memory [HL]=[HL]+1
INX B 03----- 6Increment BC BC=BC+1
INX D 13----- 6Increment DE DE=DE+1
INX H 23----- 6Increment HL HL=HL+1
INX SP 33----- 6Increment Stack Pointer SP=SP+1
JMP a C3----- 7Jump unconditional PC=a
JC a DA----- 7Jump on Carry If CY=1(10~s)
JM a FA----- 7Jump on Minus If S=1 (10~s)
JNC a D2----- 7Jump on No Carry If CY=0(10~s)
JNZ a C2----- 7Jump on No Zero If Z=0 (10~s)
JP a F2----- 7Jump on Plus If S=0 (10~s)
JPE a EA----- 7Jump on Parity Even If P=1 (10~s)
JPO a E2----- 7Jump on Parity Odd If P=0 (10~s)
JZ a CA----- 7Jump on Zero If Z=1 (10~s)
LDA a 3A-----13Load Accumulator direct A=[a]
LDAX B 0A----- 7Load Accumulator indirect A=[BC]
LDAX D 1A----- 7Load Accumulator indirect A=[DE]
LHLD a 2A-----16Load HL Direct HL=[a]
LXI B,nn 01-----10Load Immediate BC BC=nn
LXI D,nn 11-----10Load Immediate DE DE=nn
LXI H,nn 21-----10Load Immediate HL HL=nn
LXI SP,nn31-----10Load Immediate Stack Ptr SP=nn
MOV r1,r27F----- 4Move register to register r1=r2 (1XX)
MOV M,r 77----- 7Move register to Memory [HL]=r (16X)
MOV r,M 7E----- 7Move Memory to register r=[HL] (1X6)
MVI r,n 3E----- 7Move Immediate r=n (0X6)
MVI M,n 36-----10Move Immediate to Memory [HL]=n
NOP 00----- 4No Operation
ORA r B7**0*0 4Inclusive OR Accumulator A=Avr (26X)
ORA M B6**0*0 7Inclusive OR Accumulator A=Av[HL]
ORI n F6**0*0 7Inclusive OR Immediate A=Avn
OUT p D3-----10Output [p]=A
PCHL E9----- 6Jump HL indirect PC=[HL]
POP B C1-----10Pop BC BC=[SP]+
POP D D1-----10Pop DE DE=[SP]+
POP H E1-----10Pop HL HL=[SP]+
POP PSW F1-----10Pop Processor Status Word {PSW,A}=[SP]+
----------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------
Mnemonic OpSZAPC~sDescription Notes
---------+--+-----+--+--------------------------+-------------
PUSH B C5-----12Push BC -[SP]=BC
PUSH D D5-----12Push DE -[SP]=DE
PUSH H E5-----12Push HL -[SP]=HL
PUSH PSW F5-----12Push Processor Status Word-[SP]={PSW,A}
RAL 17----* 4Rotate Accumulator Left A={CY,A}<-
RAR 1F----* 4Rotate Accumulator Righ A=->{CY,A}
RET C9-----10Return PC=[SP]+
RC D8----- 6Return on Carry If CY=1(12~s)
RIM 20----- 4Read Interrupt Mask A=mask
RM F8----- 6Return on Minus If S=1 (12~s)
RNC D0----- 6Return on No Carry If CY=0(12~s)
RNZ C0----- 6Return on No Zero If Z=0 (12~s)
RP F0----- 6Return on Plus If S=0 (12~s)
RPE E8----- 6Return on Parity Even If P=1 (12~s)
RPO E0----- 6Return on Parity Odd If P=0 (12~s)
RZ C8----- 6Return on Zero If Z=1 (12~s)
RLC 07----* 4Rotate Left Circular A=A<-
RRC 0F----* 4Rotate Right Circular A=->A
RST z C7-----12Restart (3X7)-[SP]=PC,PC=z
SBB r 9F***** 4Subtract with Borrow A=A-r-CY
SBB M 9E***** 7Subtract with Borrow A=A-[HL]-CY
SBI n DE***** 7Subtract with Borrow ImmedA=A-n-CY
SHLD a 22-----16Store HL Direct [a]=HL
SIM 30----- 4Set Interrupt Mask mask=A
SPHL F9----- 6Move HL to SP SP=HL
STA a 32-----13Store Accumulator [a]=A
STAX B 02----- 7Store Accumulator indirect[BC]=A
STAX D 12----- 7Store Accumulator indirect[DE]=A
STC 37----1 4Set Carry CY=1
SUB r 97***** 4Subtract A=A-r (22X)
SUB M 96***** 7Subtract Memory A=A-[HL]
SUI n D6***** 7Subtract Immediate A=A-n
XCHG EB----- 4Exchange HL with DE HL<->DE
XRA r AF**0*0 4Exclusive OR Accumulator A=Axr (25X)
XRA M AE**0*0 7Exclusive OR Accumulator A=Ax[HL]
XRI n EE**0*0 7Exclusive OR Immediate A=Axn
XTHL E3-----16Exchange stack Top with HL[SP]<->HL
------------+-----+--+----------------------------------------
PSW -*01 Flag unaffected/affected/reset/set
S S Sign (Bit 7)
Z Z Zero (Bit 6)
AC A Auxilary Carry (Bit 4)
P P Parity (Bit 2)
CY C Carry (Bit 0)
---------------------+----------------------------------------
a p Direct addressing
M z Register indirect addressing
n nn Immediate addressing
r Register addressing
---------------------+----------------------------------------
DB n(,n) Define Byte(s)
DB 'string' Define Byte ASCII character string
DS nn Define Storage Block
DW nn(,nn) Define Word(s)
---------------------+----------------------------------------
A B C D E H L Registers (8-bit)
BC DE HL Register pairs (16-bit)
PC Program Counter register (16-bit)
PSW Processor Status Word (8-bit)
SP Stack Pointer register (16-bit)
---------------------+----------------------------------------
a nn 16-bit address/data (0 to 65535)
n p 8-bit data/port (0 to 255)
r Register (X=B,C,D,E,H,L,M,A)
z Vector (X=0H,8H,10H,18H,20H,28H,30H,38H)
---------------------+----------------------------------------
+ - Arithmetic addition/subtraction
& ~ Logical AND/NOT
v x Logical inclusive/exclusive OR
<- -> Rotate left/right
<-> Exchange
[ ] Indirect addressing
[ ]+ -[ ] Indirect address auto-inc/decrement
{ } Combination operands
( X ) Octal op code where X is a 3-bit code
If ( ~s) Number of cycles if condition true
----------------------------------------------------------------

8085 Instruction Set

Instruction Set

8085 instruction set consists of the following instructions:

• Data moving instructions.
• Arithmetic - add, subtract, increment and decrement.
• Logic - AND, OR, XOR and rotate.
• Control transfer - conditional, unconditional, call subroutine, return from subroutine and restarts.
• Input/Output instructions.
• Other - setting/clearing flag bits, enabling/disabling interrupts, stack operations, etc.

Data Transfer Group:

Data Transfer Group:
The data transfer instructions move data between registers or between memory and registers.

1. MOV Move
2. MVI Move Immediate
3. LDA Load Accumulator Directly from Memory
4. STA Store Accumulator Directly in Memory
5. LHLD Load H & L Registers Directly from Memory
6. SHLD Store H & L Registers Directly in Memory
   
   An 'X' in the name of a data transfer instruction implies that it deals with a register pair (16-bits):
   
   LXI Load Register Pair with Immediate data
   LDAX Load Accumulator from Address in Register Pair
   STAX Store Accumulator in Address in Register Pair
   XCHG Exchange H & L with D & E
   XTHL Exchange Top of Stack with H & L
   
   
   Arithmetic Group:
   The arithmetic instructions add, subtract, increment, or decrement data in registers or memory.
   ADD Add to Accumulator
   ADI Add Immediate Data to Accumulator
   ADC Add to Accumulator Using Carry Flag
   ACI Add Immediate data to Accumulator Using Carry
   SUB Subtract from Accumulator
   SUI Subtract Immediate Data from Accumulator
   SBB Subtract from Accumulator Using Borrow (Carry) Flag
   SBI Subtract Immediate from Accumulator Using Borrow (Carry) Flag
   INR Increment Specified Byte by One
   DCR Decrement Specified Byte by One
   INX Increment Register Pair by One
   DCX Decrement Register Pair by One
   DAD Double Register Add; Add Content of Register Pair to H & L Register
   Logical Group:
   This group performs logical (Boolean) operations on data in registers and memory and on condition flags.
   The logical AND, OR, and Exclusive OR instructions enable you to set specific bits in the accumulator ON or OFF.
   ANA Logical AND with Accumulator
   ANI Logical AND with Accumulator Using Immediate Data
   ORA Logical OR with Accumulator
   OR Logical OR with Accumulator Using Immediate Data
   XRA Exclusive Logical OR with Accumulator
   XRI Exclusive OR Using Immediate Data
   
   The Compare instructions compare the content of an 8-bit value with the contents of the accumulator:
   CMP Compare
   CPI Compare Using Immediate Data
   
   
   The rotate instructions shift the contents of the accumulator one bit position to the left or right:
   RLC Rotate Accumulator Left
   RRC Rotate Accumulator Right
   RAL Rotate Left Through Carry
   RAR Rotate Right Through Carry
   
   Complement and carry flag instructions:
   CMA Complement Accumulator
   CMC Complement Carry Flag
   STC Set Carry Flag
   
   Branch Group:
   The branching instructions alter normal sequential program flow, either unconditionally or conditionally. The unconditional branching instructions are as follows:
   JMP Jump
   CALL Call
   RET Return
   
   
   
   Conditional branching instructions examine the status of one of four condition flags to determine whether the specified branch is to be executed. The conditions that may be specified are as follows:
   NZ Not Zero (Z = 0)
   Z Zero (Z = 1)
   NC No Carry (C = 0)
   C Carry (C = 1)
   PO Parity Odd (P = 0)
   PE Parity Even (P = 1)
   P Plus (S = 0)
   M Minus (S = 1)
   
   Thus, the conditional branching instructions are specified as follows:
   Jumps Calls Returns
   C CC RC (Carry)
   INC CNC RNC (No Carry)
   JZ CZ RZ (Zero)
   JNZ CNZ RNZ (Not Zero)
   JP CP RP (Plus)
   JM CM RM (Minus)
   JPE CPE RPE (Parity Even)
   JP0 CPO RPO (Parity Odd)
   
   Two other instructions can affect a branch by replacing the contents or the program counter:
   PCHL Move H & L to Program Counter
   RST Special Restart Instruction Used with Interrupts
   
   Stack I/O, and Machine Control Instructions:
   The following instructions affect the Stack and/or Stack Pointer:
   PUSH Push Two bytes of Data onto the Stack
   POP Pop Two Bytes of Data off the Stack
   XTHL Exchange Top of Stack with H & L
   SPHL Move content of H & L to Stack Pointer
   
   The I/0 instructions are as follows:
   IN Initiate Input Operation
   OUT Initiate Output Operation
   
   The Machine Control instructions are as follows:
   EI Enable Interrupt System
   DI Disable Interrupt System
   HLT Halt
   NOP No Operation
   
   

8085 microprocessor architecture Introduction

8085A, 8085AH microprocessor - DIP 40 package
Manufacturers: AMD, Intel, NEC, Siemens, Toshiba.

Program, data and stack memories occupy the same memory space. The total addressable memory size is 64 KB.

Program memory:- program can be located anywhere in memory. Jump, branch and call instructions use 16-bit addresses, i.e. they can be used to jump/branch anywhere within 64 KB. All jump/branch instructions use absolute addressing.

Data memory:- the processor always uses 16-bit addresses so that data can be placed anywhere.

Stack memory: is limited only by the size of memory. Stack grows downward.
First 64 bytes in a zero memory page should be reserved for vectors used by RST instructions.

Interrupts

The processor has 5 interrupts. They are presented below in the order of their priority (from lowest to highest):
INTR is maskable 8080A compatible interrupt. When the interrupt occurs the processor fetches from the bus one instruction, usually one of these instructions:
One of the 8 RST instructions (RST0 - RST7). The processor saves current program counter into stack and branches to memory location N * 8 (where N is a 3-bit number from 0 to 7 supplied with the RST instruction).
CALL instruction (3 byte instruction). The processor calls the subroutine, address of which is specified in the second and third bytes of the instruction.
RST5.5 is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents of the PC register into stack and branches to 2Ch (hexadecimal) address.

RST6.5 is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents of the PC register into stack and branches to 34h (hexadecimal) address.

RST7.5 is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents of the PC register into stack and branches to 3Ch (hexadecimal) address.

Trap is a non-maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents of the PC register into stack and branches to 24h (hexadecimal) address.

All maskable interrupts can be enabled or disabled using EI and DI instructions. RST 5.5, RST6.5 and RST7.5 interrupts can be enabled or disabled individually using SIM instruction.

I/O ports

256 Input ports

256 Output ports

Registers

Accumulator or A register is an 8-bit register used for arithmetic, logic, I/O and load/store operations.

Flag is an 8-bit register containing 5 1-bit flags:
Sign - set if the most significant bit of the result is set.
Zero - set if the result is zero.
Auxiliary carry - set if there was a carry out from bit 3 to bit 4 of the result.
Parity - set if the parity (the number of set bits in the result) is even.
Carry - set if there was a carry during addition, or borrow during subtraction/comparison.

General registers:
8-bit B and 8-bit C registers can be used as one 16-bit BC register pair. When used as a pair the C register contains low-order byte. Some instructions may use BC register as a data pointer.
8-bit D and 8-bit E registers can be used as one 16-bit DE register pair. When used as a pair the E register contains low-order byte. Some instructions may use DE register as a data pointer.
8-bit H and 8-bit L registers can be used as one 16-bit HL register pair. When used as a pair the L register contains low-order byte. HL register usually contains a data pointer used to reference memory addresses.
Stack pointer is a 16 bit register. This register is always incremented/decremented by 2.
Program counter is a 16-bit register.

Brain wash manual

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ASP Programming for the Absolute Beginner

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optimal capacitors Replacement in radial distribution systems

ABSTRACT:

The main objective of the present work is to determine optimal location and size of capacitors in radial distribution systems to improve voltage profile and reduce the active power loss. For this, an effective load flow solution is essential.

In this project, Vector Based Distribution Load Flow (VDLF) method is used. The VDLF is made powerful by using the ‘Sparsity Technique’. Optimal Capacitor Placement and Sizing are done by ‘Loss Sensitivity factors’ and ‘α-coefficients’ respectively. The concept of ‘Loss-Sensitivity Factors’ can be considered as new contribution to the area of distribution system studies. From a single base case load flow study results, the “Loss-Sensitivity Factors” offer the important information about the sequence of potential nodes for capacitor placement.

The evaluation of Loss-Sensitivity Factors is well supported by the effective data structure proposed in sparsity technique. Loss sensitivity factor is defined in two ways and the results obtained using both the ways are compared.

The concept of ‘α-coefficient’ is reported for reactive power planning in power system and the application and validity of these coefficients in distribution systems for optimal capacitor sizing is investigated and found to be very effective. The algorithm in this project using α-coefficients makes the load flow solution simple, accurate and numerically reliable with reduced memory and execution time.

The above approaches are tested on 15 & 31 bus distribution test systems and results are promising.



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Artificial Immune-Based For Voltage Stability Prediction In Power System

Abstract:

Voltage instability has recently become a challenging problem for many power system operators. These are blackouts.

This paper presents the application ofArtificial Immune Systems (AIS) for online voltage stability evaluation that could be used as early warning system to the power system operator so that necessary action could be taken in order to avoid the occurrence of voltage collapse. Key features of the proposed method are the implementation of clonal selection principle that has the capability in performing pattern recognition task.

The proposed technique was tested on the IEEE 30 bus power system and the results shows that fast performance with accurate prediction for voltage stability condition of the system was obtained. In order to realize the superior features of AIS, a comparative study was conducted with Artificial Neural Network (ANN)-based prediction system. This system was developed to perform similar task on the same test system.



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VOLTAGE STABILITY CONSTRAINED ATC COMPUTATIONS IN DEREGULATED POWER SYSTEM USING NOVEL TECHNIQUE

ABSTRACT:

The voltage stability constrained Available Transfer Capability (ATC) computations are obtained on IEEE 9-bus by running load flow until the voltage collapse point is achieved by enhancing the load in steps with constant power factor. These results are used to train the Neural Network by using Radial Basis Function Neural Network (RBFN) technique. The comparative results of convergence method, L-index method and RBFN network are presented in this study. The results are certainly useful in an online environment of deregulated power system in view of computational simplicity, time and computer memory.



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TRANSFORMER PROTECTION Using SUDDEN PRESSURE RELAYS

INTRODUCTION:

Sudden pressure relays are a specialized protection device to detect transformer or reactor problems. The sudden pressure relay detects sudden changes in transformer oil or gas pressure due to internal faults. The sudden pressure relay has an inverse time characteristic. It operates faster for severe faults. The sudden pressure relay may be used in conjunction with other types of power transformer or shunt reactor protective devices. There are three types of sudden pressure relays. The Buchholz type relay is used only on transformers with conservator tanks. The Buchholz relay is mounted on the oil line between the main transformer tank and the conservator tank. The other two types of sudden pressure relays can be used with any type of transformer.

They measure changes in gas or oil pressure. A relay placed above the transformer oil measures a change in gas pressure. The relay placed below the oil measures a change in oil pressure. All of these relays are designed with equalizing pressure with the intent to prevent false operations for through faults.

The sudden pressure relay detects some types of faults which other relays such as differentials and overcurrents typically cannot detect. The sudden pressure relay can detect internal faults, such as turn to turn faults. Differential or overcurrent relays are required to detect external faults such as bushing faults, trouble outside the transformer tank, or internal faults involving ground.




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Transformer Internal Faults Simulation

　
Abstract:

This paper presents a novel method of modeling internal faults in a power transformer. The method leads to a model which is compatible with commercial phasor-based software packages. Consequently; it enables calculation of fault currents in any branch of the network due to a winding fault of a power transformer. These currents can be used for evaluation of protective relays' performance and can lead to better setting of protective functions.



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5stararun……

Transformer Fault Analysis Using Event Oscillography

Abstract:

Transformer differential protection operates on Kirchhoff’s well-known law that states, “The sum of currents entering and leaving a point is zero.” Although Kirchhoff’s law is well understood, the implementation of the law in transformer differential protection involves many practical considerations such as current transformer (CT) polarity, phase-angle correction, zero-sequence removal, and CT grounding. Still, even correctly implemented transformer differential protection misoperates occasionally, resulting from conditions such as CT saturation during heavy through faults. Whereas electromechanical and electronic relays provide no or very little fault formation, numerical relays provide an abundance of information. However, the analyst must still select
the correct fault information from this abundance of information to perform useful fault analysis.

This paper demonstrates how to begin analysis of such events by using real-life oscillographic data and going through a stepby-step analysis of the relay algorithm using a mathematical relay
model. Relay engineers can use this paper as a reference for analyzing transformer oscillography in a systematic and logical manner.



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Static Voltage Stability Assessment Considering the Power System Contingencies using Continuation Power Flow Method

Abstract:

According to the increasing utilization in power system, the transmission lines and power plants often operate in stability boundary and system probably lose its stable condition by over loading or occurring disturbance. According to the reasons that are mentioned, the prediction and recognition of voltage instability in power system has particular importance and it makes the network security stronger.This paper, by considering of power system contingencies based on the effects of them on Mega Watt Margin (MWM) and maximum loading point is focused in order to analyse the static voltage stability using continuation power flow method. The study has been carried out on IEEE 14-Bus Test System using Matlab and Psat softwares and results are presented.


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POWER TRANSFORMER INCIPIENT FAULTS MONITORING

Abstract:

Power transformers are important and expensive components in the electric power system. The
knowledge of the actual status of the transformer insulation behavior, load tap changer performance, temperature, and load condition is necessary in order to evaluate the service performance concerning reliability, availability and safety. Systems abnormalities, loading,
switching and ambient condition normally contribute towards accelerated aging and sudden failure. The paper presents the causes which lead to the internal faults appearance in the power transformer. The production mechanisms of the faults and the on-line monitoring are also analyzed. A monitoring procedure is proposed for the diagnosis and forecasting strategy of
the functioning state of the power transformer.



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Online Measurements of Transformer Fault Gases

The dissolved gas analysis technique (DGA) is well known to the transformer engineering
community. Equally well known are some of the limitations of this method for analyzing
transformer fault gases (H2, O2, CO, CO2, CH4, C2H2, C2H4, C2H6). Further, it is widely known that knowledge of the concentrations of these gases dissolved in oil (especially the combustible gases) is critical to safe transformer operation and management. Serveron has developed and deployed an online system that eliminates most of the aforementioned limitations and a system that provides near real time information on transformer gassing, with an ability to access this data from a remote location.


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MV NETWORK REMOTE MONITORING AND CONTROL

INTRODUCTION:

Distribution Automation is increasingly being introduced by Tamilnadu distribution utilities in order to be prepared for the forthcoming process of energy market opening in Tamilnadu.

First, we have tried to define a term “Distribution Automation” that is to often related only to MV network remote monitoring and control. Distribution Automation comprises number of functions, as shown in the paper that should help distribution utility to survive in the deregulated
environment.

Furthermore, paper gives an overview of applied technical solutions (most of them are systems developed by domestic companies) in the field of MV network remote monitoring and
control as well as the perspectives of Distribution Automation in Tamilnadu.

Also, new solutions for measuring current and voltage are presented – sensor technology, which in practice rules out conventional instrument transformers because of their large
size and higher costs. Due to their characteristics, current and voltage sensors become the standard equipment in MV switchgear automation process.

The communication system, selected for data transmission, has a direct bearing on the success of a Distribution Automation project. This part of the paper reviews the types of communication systems suitable for MV network remote monitoring and control as seen from distribution utilities in Tamilnadu.


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Measurement based Voltage Stability Monitoring of Power system

Abstract:
Many papers discuss the voltage stability assessment of power system using power flow analysis methods. In this paper, a method for online monitoring of a power system based on
measurements is proposed, which is aimed at detection of the voltage instability. Thereby an indicator is derived from the fundamental Kirchoff-Laws. Since in the transient process, at any
time point, the electric power of the system is in balance, and the Kirchoff-Law is obeyed, this indicator will still work during the transient process. From the indicator, it is allowed to predict the voltage instability or the proximity of a collapse. The advantage of the method lies in the simple numerical calculation and strong adaptation in steady state and transient process. Through the indicator of voltage stability, it is easy to find the most vulnerable
area in a system, to find the impacts of other loads, areas and power transactions



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Internal Fault Classification in Transformer Windings using Combination of Discrete Wavelet Transforms and Back-propagation Neural Networks

Abstract:

This paper presents an algorithm based on a combination of Discrete Wavelet Transforms and neural networks for detection and classification of internal faults in a twowinding three-phase transformer. Fault conditions of the transformer are simulated using ATP/EMTP in order to obtain current signals. The training process for the neural network and Fault diagnosis decision are implemented using toolboxes on MATLAB/Simulink. Various cases and fault types based on Thailand electricity transmission and distribution systems are studied to verify the validity of the algorithm. It is found that the proposed method gives a satisfactory accuracy, and will be particularly useful in a development of a modern differential relay for a transformer protection scheme.



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Harmonics and voltage stability analysis in power systems including thyristor-controlled reactor

Abstract:

In this study, non-sinusoidal quantities and voltage stability, both known as power quality criteria, are examined together in detail. The widespread use of power electronics elements cause the existence of significant non-sinusoidal quantities in the system. These non-sinusoidal quantities can create serious harmonic distortions in transmission and distribution systems. In this paper, harmonic generation of a staticVARcompensator with thyristor-controlled reactor and effectsm of the harmonics on steady-state voltage stability are examined for various operational conditions.



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FUZZY-NEURAL APPROACH FOR DISSOLVED GAS ANALYSIS OF POWER TRANSFORMER INCIPIENT FAULTS

Abstract:

Well-being of power transformer is crucial to the reliable operation of power system. Dissolved gas analysis is an important tool for online monitoring of transformer insulation. Although IEC codes were developed to diagnose transformer faults, there are situations of errors and misleading results occurring due to borderline and multiple faults. Methods were developed to solve this problem by using fuzzy membership functions to map the IEC codes and heuristic experience to adjust the fuzzy rules. This paper proposes a fuzzy-neural method to perform self-learning and auto rule-adjustment for producing the best rules. Tests using the hybrid diagnosis system are satisfactory.


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ANN Based Power Transformer Fault Diagnosis

Abstract:

This paper presents as Artificial Neural Network (ANN) technique to recognize the incipient faults of power transformers. The technique presented in this paper improves the diagnosis accuracy of the conventional dissolved gas analysis (DGA) approaches. The ANN is trained by using Adaptive Back-propagation learning algorithm that converges much faster than the conventional Back-propagation algorithm.The developed ANN system for the power transformer fault diagnosis has superior performance in fault diagnosis has superior performance in fault diagnosis as compared to the conventional methods.

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English Grammar - 'ARTICLE'

lets we start from “ARTICLE”


1 a/an (the indefinite article):

The form a is used before a word beginning with a consonant, or a vowel with a consonant sound.

a man a hat a university a European a one-way street

The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or words beginning with a mute h.

an apple an island an uncle
an egg an onion an hour
or individual letters spoken with a vowel sound.

an L-plate an MP an SOS an ‘x’ a/an is the same for all genders:
a man a woman an actor an actress a table

2 Use of a/an:

a/an is used:

A. Before a singular noun which is countable (i.e. of which there is more than one) when it is mentioned for the first time and represents no particular person or thing:

I need a visa. They live in a flat. He bought an ice-cream.

B. Before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of a class of things:

A car must be insured = All cars/Any car must be insured.

A child needs love = All children need/Any child needs love.

C. With a noun complement. This includes names of professions:

It was an earthquake. She’ll be a dancer. He is an actor.

D. In certain expressions of quantity:

a lot of a couple
a great many a dozen (but one dozen is also possible)
a great deal of

E. With certain numbers

a hundred a thousand Before half when half follows a whole number
ll/2 kilos = one and a half kilos or a kilo and a half But 1/2 kg = half a kilo (no a before half), though a + half + noun is sometimes possible
a half holiday a half portion a half share With 1/3 1/4, 1/5 etc a is usual a third, a quarter etc , but one is also possible

F. In expressions of price, speed, ratio etc

5p a kilo £1 a metre sixty kilometres an hour
lOp a dozen four times a day (Here a/an = per )

G. In exclamations before singular, countable nouns

Such a long queue’ What a pretty girl’ But Such long queues’ What pretty girls’

H. a can be placed before Mr/Mrs/Miss + surname

a Mr Arun a Mrs Arun a Miss Rani

a Mr Arun means ‘a man called Arun‘ and implies that he is a stranger to the speaker Mr Arun, without a, implies that the speaker knows Mr Arun or knows of his existence.

3 Omission of a/an:

A. Before plural nouns

a/an has no plural form. So the plural of a dog is dogs, and of
an egg is eggs

B. Before uncountable nouns

C. Before names of meals, except when these are preceded by an adjective

We have breakfast at eight
He gave us a good breakfast
The article is also used when it is a special meal given to celebrate something or in someone's honour
I was invited to dinner (at their house, in the ordinary way) but
I was invited to a dinner given to welcome the new ambassador

4 a/an and one:

A. a/an and one (adjective)

1. When counting or measuring time, distance, weight etc we can use either a/an or one for the singular:
£1 = a/one pound £1,000,000 = a/one million pounds.But note that in The rent is £100 a week the a before week is not replaceable by one.
In other types of statement a/an and one are not normally interchangeable, because one + noun normally means 'one only/not more than one' and a/an does not mean this
A shotgun is no good (It is the wrong sort of thing )
One shotgun is no good (I need two or three )

2. Special uses of one

(a) one (adjective/pronoun) used with another/others
One (boy) wanted to read, another/others wanted to watch TV
One day he wanted his lunch early, another day he wanted it late

(b) one can be used before day/week/month/year/summer/winter etc or before the name of the day or month to denote a particular time when something happened
One night there was a terrible storm One winter the snow fell early One day a telegram arrived.

(c) one day can also be used to mean 'at some future date'.
One day you 'II be sorry you treated him so badly (Some day would also be possible )

B. a/an and one (pronoun)

one is the pronoun equivalent of a/an
Did you get a ticket? ~ Yes, I managed to get one The plural of one used in this way is some
Did you get tickets? ~ Yes, I managed to get some

5. a little/a few and little/few:

A. a little/little (adjectives) are used before uncountable nouns:
a little salt/little salt a few/few (adjectives) are used before plural nouns.
a few people/few people All four forms can also be used as pronouns, either alone or with of:
Sugar? ~ A little, please
Only a few of these are any good

B. a little, a few (adjectives and pronouns)
a little is a small amount, or what the speaker considers a small
amount, a few is a small number, or what the speaker considers a small number.
only placed before a little/a few emphasizes that the number or amount really is small in the speaker's opinion:
Only a few of our customers have accounts But quite placed before a few increases the number considerably:
/ have quite a few books on art (quite a lot of books)

C. little and few (adjectives and pronouns)
little and few denote scarcity or lack and have almost the force of a negative:
There was little time for consultation.
Little is known about the side-effects of this drug.
Few towns have such splendid trees.
This use of little and few is mainly confined to written English (probably because in conversation little and few might easily be mistaken for a little/a few). In conversation, therefore, little and few are normally replaced by hardly any A negative verb + much/many is also possible:
We saw little = We saw hardly anything/We didn't see much.
Tourists come here but few stay overnight =
Tourists come here but hardly any stay overnight. But little and few can be used more freely when they are qualified by so, very, too, extremely, comparatively, relatively etc. fewer (comparative) can also be used more freely.
I'm unwilling to try a drug I know so little about
They have too many technicians, we have too few
There are fewer butterflies every year.

D. a little/little (adverbs)
1. a little can be used-
(a) with verbs: It rained a little during the night.
They grumbled a little about having to wait.

(b) with 'unfavourable' adjectives and adverbs: a little anxious a little unwillingly
a little annoyed a little impatiently

(c) with comparative adjectives or adverbs:
The paper should be a little thicker
Can't you walk a little faster?
rather could replace a little in (b) and can also be used before comparatives, though a little is more usual. In colloquial English a bit could be used instead of a little in all the above examples.

2. little is used chiefly with better or more in fairly formal style'
His second suggestion was little (= not much) better than his first.
He was little (= not much) more than a child when his father died It can also, in formal English, be placed before certain verbs, for example expect, know, suspect, think:
He little expected to find himself in prison He little thought that one day Note also the adjectives little-known and little-used: a little-known painter a little-used footpath

6. the (the definite article)

A. Form
the is the same for singular and plural and for all genders: the boy the girl the day the boys the girls the days

B. Use
The definite article is used.
1. When the object or group of objects is unique or considered to be unique:
the earth the sea the sky the equator the stars

2. Before a noun which has become definite as a result of being mentioned a second time:
His car struck a tree; you can still see the mark on the tree

3. Before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause:
the girl in blue the man with the banner the boy that I met the place where I met him

4. Before a noun which by reason of locality can represent only one particular thing:
Ann is in the garden (the garden of this house)
Please pass the wine, (the wine on the table)
Similarly, the postman (the one who comes to us), the car (our car), the newspaper (the one we read).

5. Before superlatives and first, second etc. used as adjectives or pronouns, and only:
the first (week) the best day the only way

C. the + singular noun can represent a class of animals or things.
The whale is in danger of becoming extinct.
The deep-freeze has made life easier for housewives But man, used to represent the human race, has no article
If oil supplies run out, man may have to fall back on the horse. the can be used before a member of a certain group of people:
The small shopkeeper is finding life increasingly difficult the + singular noun as used above takes a singular verb. The pronoun is he, she or it
The first-class traveller pays more so he expects some comfort.

D. the + adjective represents a class of persons: the old = old people in general

E. the is used before certain proper names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, chains of mountains, plural names of countnes, deserts, regions
the Atlantic the Netherlands
the Thames the Sahara
the Azores the Crimea
the Alps the Riviera
and before certain other names
the City the Mall the Sudan
the Hague the Strand the Yemen
the is also used before names consisting of noun + of + noun
the Bay of Biscay the Gulf of Mexico
the Cape of Good Hope the United States of America
the is used before names consisting of adjective + noun (provided the adjective is not east, west etc )
the Arabian Sea the New Forest the High Street the is used before the adjectives east/west etc + noun in certain names
the East/West End the East/West Indies
the North/South Pole but is normally omitted
Smith Africa North America West Germany the, however, is used before east/west etc when these are nouns
the north of Spam the West (geographical)
the Middle East the West (political)
Compare Go north (adverb in a northerly direction) with He lives in the north (noun an area in the north)

F. the is used before other proper names consisting of adjective + noun or noun + of + noun
the National Gallery the Tower of London It is also used before names of choirs, orchestras, pop groups etc
the Bach Choir the Philadelphia Orchestra the Beatles and before names of newspapers (The Times) and ships (the Great Britain)

G. the with names of people has a very limited use the + plural surname can be used to mean 'the family'
the Smiths = Mr and Mrs Smith (and children) the + singular name + clause/phrase can be used to distinguish one person from another of the same name
We have two Mr Smiths Which do you want-1 ~ I want the Mr
Smith who signed this letter
the is used before titles containing of (the Duke of York) but it is not used before other titles or ranks (Lord Olivier, Captain Cook), though if someone is referred to by title/rank alone the is used
The earl expected The captain ordered
Letters written to two or more unmarned sisters jointly may be addressed The Misses + surname The Misses Smith.

7. Omission of the

A. The definite article is not used

1. Before names of places except as shown above or before names of people

2. Before abstract nouns except when they are used in a particular sense
Men fear death but
The death of the Prime Minister left his party without a leader

3. After a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive adjective
the boy's uncle = the uncle of the boy
It is my (blue) book = The (blue) book is mine

4. Before names of meals The Scots have porridge for breakfast but The wedding breakfast was held in her father s house

5. Before names of games He plays golf

6. Before parts of the body and articles of clothing as these normally prefer a possessive adjective Raise your right hand He took off his coat But notice that sentences of the type
She seized the child's collar
I patted his shoulder
The brick hit John s face could be expressed
She seized the child by the collar
I patted him on the shoulder
The brick hit John in the face Similarly in the passive
He was hit on the head He was cut in the hand

B. Note that in some European languages the definite article is used before indefinite plural nouns but that in English the is never used m this way Women are expected to like babies (i e women in general) Big hotels all over the world are very much the same If we put the before women m the first example, it would mean that we were referring to a particular group of women

C. nature where it means the spirit creating and motivating the world of plants and animals etc is used without the
If you interfere with nature you will suffer for it

8. Omission of the before home, before church, hospital, prison, school etc and before work, sea and town

A. home

When home is used alone i e is not preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase, the is omitted He is at home
home used alone can be placed directly after a verb of motion or verb of motion + object, i.e. it can be treated as an adverb
He went home I arrived home after dark I sent him home But when home is preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase it is treated like any other noun:
They went to their new home.
We arrived at the bride's home.
For some years this was the home of your queen.
A mud hut was the only home he had ever known.

B. bed, church, court, hospital, prison, school/college/university
the is not used before the nouns listed above when these places are
visited or used for their primary purpose. We go:
to bed to sleep or as invalids to hospital as patients to church to pray to prison as prisoners
to court as litigants etc. to school/college/university to study
Similarly we can be:
in bed, sleeping or resting in hospital as patients at church as worshippers at school etc. as students
in court as witnesses etc.
We can be/get back (or be/get home) from school/college/university.
We can leave school, leave hospital, be released from pnson.
When these places are visited or used for other reasons the is
necessary:
/ went to the church to see the stained glass. He goes to the pnson sometimes to give lectures.

C. sea

We go to sea as sailors. To be at sea = to be on a voyage (as passengers or crew). But to go to or be at the sea = to go to or be at the seaside. We can also live by/near the sea.

D. work and office

work (= place of work) is used without the:
He's on his way to work. He is at work.
He isn 't back from work yet
Note that at work can also mean 'working'; hard at work = working hard:
He's hard at work on a new picture, office (= place of work) needs the: He is at/in the office. To be in office (without the) means to hold an official (usually political) position. To be out of office = to be no longer in power.

E. town
the can be omitted when speaking of the subject's or speaker's own town:
We go to town sometimes to buy clothes.We were in town last Monday.

Okay friends in the next post we will discuss about "demonstrative adjectives and pronouns"(this/these, that/those )


With Regards,

5stararun……

English Grammar

Welcome to English Grammar for Basic learners. Many of these grammar lessons also have quizzes to check your understanding.

grammar (noun): the structure and system of a language, or of languages in general, usually considered to consist of syntax and morphology.

What is Grammar?
English Grammar Terms Definitions
The 8 English Parts of SpeechThese are the words that you use to make a sentence. There are only 8 types of word - and the most important is the Verb!

Verbs be, have, do, work

Nouns man, town, music

Adjectives a, the, 69, big

Adverbs loudly, well, often

Pronouns you, ours, some

Prepositions at, in, on, from

Conjunctions and, but, though

Interjections ah, dear, hey, um

Comparatives and Superlatives

Passive Voice

Present Continuous

Gerunds and Infinitives

Hello world!

Welcome to projcts4u,

This is my first blog to educate our world.

In this Blog u can learn and download the education materials as u required.

This blog contains the following sections,

1. Free E-book download,
2. Engineering Project reports,
3. Symposium papers,
4. Study Materials,
5. Job search,
6. Engineering Subject Notes,

and so on…………….

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5stararun……